Introduction
This study examines The African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for Learning Disabilities. African American Male Student-Athlete and Black Male Student-Athletes should not be lumped into one demographic. Both have similar skin colors, but family lineage has different historical experiences that can produce different K 12 educational experiences and life perspectives based on their family historical experiences. African Americans are descendants of at least one ancestor who was forced into slavery within the United States of America’s established colonies during slavery, that led their family lineage to experience Jim Crow laws. African Americas cannot trace their ancestral roots to any specific country or tribe on Africa’s continent. Black Male Student-Athletes were born outside of the United States or were born in the United States but do not have at least one ancestor who was forced into slavery within the established colonies in the United States of America during the time of slavery. This study will focus on learning disability and functional limitations, academic success, time management, and the psychological and emotional well-being of The African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for learning disabilities. Power Five Conferences Athletic teams within the NCAA test their student-athletes for learning disabilities when they first arrive on the university campus as freshmen. The student-athlete will receive a test to determine if they have above or below-average intelligence to find any inconsistency between the student-athlete academic achievement and intellectual ability. The discovery of a learning disability will occur by a psychologist who cannot be affiliated with the university. The psychologists will use the discovery of their test to determine how the student-athlete receive, process, and retain information. The inconsistency with the African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference high school transcripts and standardized test results for admission into the university. It is often challenging to diagnose specific learning disabilities and determine their effect on higher education’s academic and sports performance. It is also more challenging to recommend accommodations to help the student-athlete with their overall academic performance in the University setting.
Multiple learning disabilities will affect the student-athletes’ classroom and competitive playing field performance in a higher education setting. The student-athlete may have learning disabilities in spoken language, listening and speaking, written language reading, writing, and spelling: arithmetic, mathematical hypothesis, reasoning organization, and organization of ideas. Student-Athletes may have learning disabilities and other disabilities such as mobility and sensory impairments, brain injuries, Attention Deficit Disorder, or Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Auditory perception and processing, for example, the student-athlete may have trouble understanding information taught through the professor’s lectures or class discussions with their class peers. The student-athlete may find it challenging with perception and processing. The student-athlete may find it hard to understand small details in shape and letters. The student-athlete may have trouble understanding class lectures taught in the class with projectors with videos, charts, and graphs. As the University of Miami athletics department’s athletic learning specialist, the student-athlete I served with accommodations biggest challenge is learning over Zoom, distance learning over video lectures synchronous or asynchronous. The student-athletes may also have trouble coping with grasping processing information at laggard speed. The student-athlete may have a hard time processing auditory and visual information. The student-athlete may be a slothful reader because of the need for an extended time to understand written material. Another area the student-athlete may need to cope with is abstract reasoning. The student-athlete may have a hard time understanding the substance of subjects that require higher-order thinking skills. The student-athlete short- or long-term memories may hinder the student-athlete from retaining or remembering information. The student-athlete may have challenges with spoken and written language barriers having difficulty with spelling and speaking. The student-athlete may find it challenging in a mathematical course finding it challenging to employ numbers finding it challenging to reorganize math problems in words and math expressions. As the University of Miami learning specialist, one area I consistently lecture and teach and assisted our student-athletes is time management. The student-athlete finds it challenging to break down large class assignments into small sections and prioritize assignments to meet due dates for my study of The African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for Learning Disabilities. I will be evaluating and identify the following student development theories: Athletic Identity in collegiate by Brewer and colleagues, Racial Identity Development Models by The Atkinson, Morten, and Sue (1979, 1989, 1993, 1998), Minority Identity Development Model, Disability Identities, and Identity Development from the Gibson Stage Models of Disability Identity, Psychosocial, Cognitive-Structural, and Integrative Development by Erikson’s Identity Development Theory
The African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for Learning Disabilities – Identities and Experiences
According to (Patton 2016), “The proper role of athletics in higher education—and particularly in revenue-generating sports at NCAA Division I institutions—is the subject of much controversy (see Clotfelter, 2011). Regardless of one’s opinion in this debate, the reality that hundreds of thousands of college students participate in intercollegiate athletics requires that student affairs educators consider their experiences and identities in a developmental context.” The African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for Learning Disabilities’ only priority is to succeed in their sports even if it takes away from improving their academic deficiencies. “The AIMS contains three first-order factors: social identity (“I consider myself an athlete”), exclusivity (“Sport is the most important thing in my life”), and negative affectivity (“I feel bad about myself when I do poorly in sport”) (Brewer & Cornelius, 2001). These factors subordinate to one higher-order athletic identity factor” (Patton,2016) Universities faculty and staff must find ways to develop the African Male student Athlete African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for Learning Disabilities to develop as a student as a whole! The student-athlete does not consider themselves as a student. As athletics learning specialist for The University of Miami, the African American student I serve expresses that the only reason they attend college is to play their sport is to make it professional. If they had the option, they would not be a college student. If there were a pathway to the professional sports league without being in college athletics, that would be their first option
The African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for Learning Disabilities – Racial Identity Development
“Racial identity theories highlight the role of race and the extent to which it is incorporated into self-concept. Racial Identity is “a sense of group or collective identity based on one’s perception that he or she shares a common racial heritage with a particular racial group.” (Helms, 1993b, p. 3). An underlying presupposition about race is that people experience domination or oppression based upon the racial group with which they identify or are perceived to belong.” (Patton,2016). Student Affairs Educator must ask how the under-representation of African American male head coaches and athletics directors at Power Five Conferences affects the African American Males Student-Athletes. This question influenced me to choose the Racial Identity Development theory the Atkinson, Morten, and Sue (1979, 1989, 1993, 1998) minority identity development model. According to Patton (2016), “The Atkinson, Morten, and Sue (1979, 1989, 1993, 1998) minority identity development model was introduced in the late 1970s. Sue and Sue (2003) revised the model, calling it the racial and cultural identity development (RCID) model. It comprises five stages. In conformity, individuals identify with White culture, internalize negative stereotypes about themselves or their racial/ethnic group, and have no desire to learn about their cultural heritage. In dissonance, individuals’ experiences contradict their White worldview. They begin a journey of questioning the dominant culture and gaining an increased interest in learning more about their own racial/ethnic group. Resistance and immersion involve conscious exploration of one’s racial/ethnic Identity. Individuals reject White culture and learn about themselves and their cultural group, leading to the formation of a new identity. In the introspection stage, individuals grapple with finding a balance between the dominant culture and their own cultural heritage and the role of both in shaping their Identity. Those who continue this intensive exploration move to synergistic articulation and awareness, in which they integrate their knowledge and experiences into a new identity whereby they accept themselves, appreciate the contributions of other groups, and balance their racial/ethnic Identity with other aspects of their Identity.”
Student affairs educators need to examine how the under-representation of African American male head coaches and athletic directors at Power Five Conferences affects The African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for Learning Disabilities. Does this occurrence keep The African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for Learning Disabilities in the conformity stage? As stated above conformity stage, the African American individuals identify with White culture, internalize negative stereotypes about themselves or their racial/ethnic group, and have no desire to learn about their cultural heritage
According to Lapchick (2020), The Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sports found that “84.5%, 89.8% and 92.5% of all the athletics directors were white in Divisions I, II, and III, respectively”. Across the board within the NCAA, the pipeline for African American males to become athletics directors and head coaches is also problematic. The same research found that “White men and women held 85.1 percent, 87.6 percent, and 92.6 percent of the positions of associate athletic directors in 2018-2019 in Divisions I, II, and III, respectively. (Lapchick, 2020) The Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sport was established in December 2002. After eighteen years of its establishment, there has been little progress in expanding diversity in athletic department leadership roles in the Power Five Conferences. The country’s top college athletics conferences are Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), Big Ten Conference, Big 12 Conference, Pac-12 Conference, and Southeastern Conference (SEC). For the African American male student-athlete, this will be disheartening to achieve leadership roles in society. This underrepresentation has lasting adverse effects on African American male student-athletes’ emotional and psychological well-being and a potential impact on their academic skills. Time and time again, research and social change campaigns are established to resolve this occurrence. However, student affairs educators and university administrators failed to resolve this issue that keeps The African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for Learning Disabilities in the conformity stage.
“However, most of the revenue is earmark to high paying salaries for head coaches and athletics directors and non-revenue sports such as tennis, golf, rowing, track, and volleyball the study Being different and suffering the consequences: The influence of head coach-player racial dissimilarity on experienced incivility proves African American males’ student-athletes are effect by the lack of representation in leadership positions in college sports,” as noted by (Cunningham 2020)
“There is evidence from the sport management literature to suggest that selective incivility would occur in head coach-player relationships. Whites and men are over-represented in head coaching positions (see Acosta and Carpenter, 2010; Zgonc, 2010) and have historically enjoyed power and privilege within the sport context. Athletes hold considerably less power, and this is particularly the case for African Americans (Hawkins, 2002; Singer, 2005b). Furthermore, few athletic department cultures are progressive and inclusive (Fink et al., 2001) and, as such, antisocial behavior directed toward racial minorities is likely to go unchecked. Racial ideologies privileging Whites players while trivializing the accomplishment of African Americans and other racial minorities also abound (Coakley, 2009; see also Cunningham and Bopp, 2010), thereby also pointing to the influence of societal factors. Collectively, this literature suggests that selective incivility should occur in sport, such that white head coaches behave in an uncivil manner toward racial minority players. “The studies also shows “People who perceive that they are treated in an uncivil manner are negatively affected in several ways.1 Incivility is associated with poor health-related outcomes, such as emotional exhaustion (Kern and Grandey, 2009), embarrassment (Yamanda, 2000), depression (Cortina et al., 2001), decreased self-esteem (Yamanda, 2000), and overall physical health (Lim et al., 2008). It also has the potential to negatively affect work-related outcomes, including satisfaction with one’s supervisor, coworkers, and overall work (Cortina et al., 2001; Lim et al., 2008; Miner-Rubino et al., 2012; Miner-Rubino and Reed, 2010; Reio and Ghosh, 2009), turnover intentions (Lim et al., 2008; Miner-Rubino and Reed, 2010), and decreased work performance (Porath and Pearson, 2010). In the current study, we focused on the impact of incivility on players’ commitment to the team” (Cunningham 2020)
For the African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for Learning Disabilities, if the student-athlete never sees individuals as themselves in leadership roles, how does this affect the student’s overall effect the African American male student-athlete? As (Mirabito 2020) noted, “Young men culturally express themselves differently by the way they look, their hair, the artwork on their bodies; the tattoos. Do you want that to be the face of your program?” In his opinion, cultural expressions often caused Black student-athletes to be exiled to positions outside of the public eye in concurrence with the institution’s preferred message.” How do Atkinson, Morten, and Sue’s Minority Identity development model explain the adverse effects on The African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for Learning Disabilities?
The African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for Learning Disabilities – Disability Identities and Identity Development
There are multiple variables that student affairs educators can resolve to stop the African American male student-athlete at power five conferences with academic accommodations for learning disabilities to fully receive assistance and accommodations from the university’s office of disability services. According to Patton (2016), “At least one in ten postsecondary students reported having some type of disability—physical, psychological, or learning (Snyder & Dillow, 2012). Because of increased educational equity for elementary and secondary students with disabilities, combined with improved pathways to college for students from all backgrounds, enrollment of college and university students with disabilities continues to grow. In fact, Newman, Wagner, Cameto, Knokey, and Shaver (2010) documented that between 1990 and 2005, the percentage of secondary school graduates with disabilities who went on to postsecondary education increased from 26% to 46%. Understanding the identities and development of students with disabilities is important in providing access to higher education and working toward more equitable academic, social, and professional outcomes.” Combine this variable with the African American male student-athlete at power five conferences; the % of individuals are even higher with a learning disability. The question student affairs educators must answer do we genuinely prioritize The African American male student-athlete at power five conferences with academic accommodations for learning disabilities academics and experiences and identities in a developmental context. “African American Football Athletes’ Perspectives on Institutional Integrity” stated the following: Although the integration of college sport at PWIHE has brought a large number of African Americans into these programs and provided opportunities for upward social mobility for some of them (i.e., earning a college degree and/or a professional sport contract), some authors suggest that African American men in these programs are victims of academic exploitation (e.g., Anderson & South, 2007; Benson, 2000; Hawkins, 1999; Scales, 1990; Spigner, 1993) and economic exploitation (e.g., Brooks & Kim, 2007; Byers, 1995; DeVenzio, 1986; Eitzen, 2003; Sack, 1988; Shropshire, 2000; Zimbalist, 1999) , especially since many of them come to these campuses with inadequate academic preparation and from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. In essence, these PWIHE and their athletic programs have been criticized for treating these athletes more as a commodity (i.e., focusing on their athletic prowess for commercial advantage and benefit) and less as students who need to be fully integrated into the academic and social culture of higher education and college sport (Davis, 2000). This would suggest that the educational interests of this particular group of students have taken a back seat to the financial interests of those who oversee the operations of college sport (i.e., the NCAA and its member institutions). Therefore, it is important to discuss the concept of institutional integrity in college sport and what should be done to ensure that it exists in these athletic programs.”(Singer, 2009).
Student affairs educators and athletic administrators across the country will state that the University Athletics academic department was created to bridge the lack of academic skills for The African American male student-athlete at the power five conferences with academic accommodations for learning disabilities, low academic skills, and student development. However, athletic learning specialists across the nation will express they feel the only objective they are accomplishing is keeping The African American male student-athlete at power five conferences with academic accommodations for learning disabilities eligibility for college athletic competition. “Considering the potential barriers encountered by student-athletes and the skills that seem to be instrumental to student success in college, it is essential that a strong support system be accessible to this population. At many postsecondary institutions, tutoring is readily available to students in the form of course specific content tutoring, study skills workshops, and other relevant resources (Norton & Agee, 2014). For underprepared college students, tutoring is the most common form of support provided (Hock et al., 1999). In fact, NCAA bylaw 16.3.1.1 mandates that “member institutions shall make general academic counseling and tutoring services available to all student-athletes” (NCAA, 2017c, p. 224). However, when striving to develop underprepared students into independent learners, tutoring needs to be structured to help students learn to self-regulate and problem-solve difficult tasks independently (Hock et al., 1999). Simple content tutoring is not adequate to meet the needs of many academically at-risk student-athletes, especially if these at-risk students are special admits or students with disabilities. Instead, researchers have suggested that interventions are necessary to provide sufficient support (Gaston-Gayles, 2004; Kitsantas et al., 2008; Simiyu, 2010). The concept of an intervention implies a deliberate effort to improve a situation, i.e., building the cognitive and non-cognitive skills necessary for academic success. Interventions need to address academic motivation and help students develop positive and confident attitudes toward school with the goal of increasing success in the classroom (Gaston-Gayles, 2004). In the realm of athletic academic support, this responsibility has been frequently entrusted to the learning specialist.” (Steinberg,2018)
These variables that influence me to choose for the Stage Models of Disability Identity are the Gibson Stage Models of Disability Identity. As Patton (2016) notes, “Similar to other areas of minoritized identities, there are also stage or stagelike models that offer descriptions of a progression that may be typical for individuals in that identity group. Models describing the developmental trajectories of disabled students focus on how individuals come to understand themselves inclusive of their disability and in relation to others with disabilities.
The existence of a reference group or culture, such as an active community of athletes with disabilities or local and online Deaf culture, into which individuals enter is another common feature of stage model.”
Gibson (2006) offered a three-stage disability identity model to guide practitioners. Her audience was psychologists, though the model translates to other areas of student services in higher education. Stage 1: Passive Awareness typically occurs during the first part of life and can continue to adulthood. In this stage, the individual’s medical needs are met, but the person has no role model, is taught to deny social aspects of disability, avoids attention, and avoids associating with other disabled individuals. An incident that brings the disability to salience prompts movement to Stage 2: Realization. Gibson located this transition most often in adolescence or early adulthood. In this stage, individuals begin to see themselves as having a
disability and may experience self-hate, anger (why me?), and concern about how others see them. In Stage 2, students with disabilities may develop what Gibson called a “superman/woman complex,” which Johnstone (2004) labeled overcompensating. Stage 3: Acceptance has parallel stages among other minority identity development models (for example, see Chapter 5 on racial Identity). In this stage, which Gibson locates most commonly in adulthood, individuals understand their differences in a positive way, integrate into the “majority (able-bodied) world” (p. 8), incorporate others with disabilities into their lives, and sometimes involve themselves in disability advocacy and activism. Although Gibson’s model unfolds in three stages, she stated that “identity development of persons with disabilities can be fluid”
(p. 8). She also noted that individuals may revert from Stage 3 to Stage 2 under circumstances that trigger anger (“Why me?”). In the lives of college students, there are several common occurrences that could prompt reversion and recycling through previous stages. For residential students with disabilities, coping with the transition to close communal living and the intimacy of shared bedrooms and bathrooms could prompt a reversion from Stage 2 to Stage 1 (avoiding attention, not associating with others with disabilities) or from Stage 3 to Stage 2 (why do I have to deal with these additional obstacles to transition?). For any student with a disability, navigating the physical campus, learning where there are accessible building entrances, approaching faculty to request accommodations on assignments, or dealing with inaccessible online learning and social media could lead to a reversion to a previous stage.
Conversely, the campus may offer opportunities to enhance the developmental trajectory of disabled students, gain confidence in self-advocacy, and navigate complex physical and organizational systems. Students may advance developmentally in the transition from a parent-(or guardian-) based system of educational support, required by law for students with disabilities in the K–12 school system and known as the individualized educational program (IEP), to reliance on themselves to locate and activate systems of accommodation and support. Communities of other students with disabilities provide outlets for finding role models, engaging in advocacy and activism, and participating in social, recreational, and educational activities with other students with disabilities. Any of these opportunities might catalyze movement from Stage 1 to Stage 2 in Gibson’s (2006) model, or from Stage 2 to Stage 3.
The student-athletes’ time requirements for physical and mental exhaustion from practice, games, and traveling affect the student-athlete to receive the complete required academic support from the athletics academics department and the office of disability services. Combining these variables for the student-athlete by being a celebrity would make the student-athlete feel embarrassed. For example, for the student-athletes who receive extended time for exams, the Office of Disability Services requires each student to take the exam in the ODS office. Therefore, for each exam, the student-athlete would be physically absent from the classroom, and students would notice that the high-profile student-athlete absent for each class exam. Thus, the student would not develop beyond Gibson’s (2006) model, from Stage 1 and Stage 2.
The African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for Learning Disabilities – Psychosocial, Cognitive-Structural, and Integrative Development
As Patton (2016) Notes, “Psychosocial, Cognitive-Structural, and Integrative Development” includes theories that expand understanding of student development to include psychological changes in students’ lives, how they make meaning, their thinking processes, their moral reasoning and decision-making, and a number of developmental aspects (cognitive and affective) that occur individually and simultaneously. Psychosocial theorists examine the content of development, that is, the important issues people face as their lives progress, such as how to define themselves, their relationships with others, and what to do with their lives. Not all issues are equally important throughout a person’s life. Rather, development takes place across the lifespan within a series of age-linked sequential stages. In each stage particular issues, called developmental tasks, arise and present compelling questions that must be resolved (Erikson, 1959/1980).
Each new stage occurs when internal biological and psychological changes interact with environmental demands, such as social norms and roles expected of individuals at certain ages in particular cultures. How successful the individual is in developing appropriate coping skills influences resolution of developmental tasks. Regression to earlier stages, readdressing of developmental tasks, and relearning of coping skills frequently occur when individuals find themselves in new and stressful situations (Erikson, 1968). The student-athlete challenges and underrepresentation for African American males in leadership roles in Power Five conferences influenced me to choose Erikson’s Identity Development Theory.
As Patton (2016) Notes, “Erik Erikson (1959/1980, 1963, 1968) was the first clinical psychologist to address the identity development journey from adolescence through adulthood. He placed the developing person in a social and historical context and addressed the influences of significant others and social institutions across the life span (1959/1980), going beyond earlier theories that focused only on childhood. Basing his research on Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective of individual development, Erikson opined that both external environments and internal dynamics influenced development (Widick, Parker, & Knefelkamp, 1978). Erikson’s perspective on development is grounded in the epigenetic principle: “Anything that grows has a ground plan, and…out of this ground plan the parts arise, each part having its time of special ascendancy, until all parts have arisen to form a functioning whole” (Erikson, 1968, p. 92).”
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The African American Male Student-Athlete at Power Five Conference with Academic Accommodations for Learning Disabilities – Analysis & Discussions
Athletic Identity in collegiate theory by Brewer and colleagues helps me understand how the African American male student-athlete at power five conferences with academic accommodations for learning disabilities view themselves. The essential aspect in their life is to be a successful athletes. As an athletics learning specialist at a power five conferences educational institution and my fellow student affairs educators must find ways to develop the student-athlete beyond being just an athlete. There needs to be research done to address this lack of development among our African American male student-athletes. Racial Identity Development Models by The Atkinson, Morten, and Sue (1979, 1989, 1993, 1998) minority identity development model shows a need for more African American males in leadership roles in power five conferences. Suppose diversity and inclusion are not improving in hiring a higher percent of head coaches and athletics directors. In that case, the African American male student-athlete will stay in the stage of conformity. The African American student-athlete will identify with White culture, internalize negative stereotypes about themselves or their racial/ethnic group, and have no desire to learn about their cultural heritage. Thus, never feel empowered to earn a leadership role in any profession. How can any demographic dream of earning a leadership role when in the NCAA, 80% of head coaches are white, and only 20% are minorities? The Gibson Stage Models of Disability Identity indeed proves the challenges internally and externally the African American male student-athlete at power five conferences with academic accommodations for learning disabilities must face. Student affairs educators need to incorporate a satellite office in the Athletics Academics department to give high-profile student-athlete with learning disabilities privacy while using their learning accommodation, for example, extended time for exams. Student affairs educators need to influence the university leadership to include in the budget for learning specialists to travel with the sports teams to hold tutoring and academic skills development during away games. Student affairs educators must influence the athletics department to hire head coaches who value and understand the importance of developing student-athletes in academics. More time may be taken in academics for students with disabilities. Power five Conference educational institutions generated billions of dollars off the backs of African American student-athletes. However, when the student-athlete arrives on campus, their academic skills level is not up to par. Each higher education institution needs to mimic Stanford University and the University of Michigan’s 6th -12th-grade bride program, bridging the gap of support for the African American community in the inner city to improve students with low academic skills. Erikson’s Identity Development Theory helps me understand all the variables of the challenges the African American males in power five conferences with academic accommodations for learning disabilities face. The student-athlete will need resources outside of the university to develop positive moral reasoning and decision-making if all that matters to the university are winning games that earn revenue for universities.
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